The results of this study indicate that the CITES ban on the international trade in ivory has succeeded in reversing the decline in the African elephant population. However, the ban has not benefited every country alike, some of which have continued to lose elephants. Poachers in these countries have greater access to ‘ unregulated’ domestic markets for ivory, perhaps facilitated by corruption and civil war. These findings call for coordinated action to govern the domestic sale of ivory. The existence of unregulated markets has left open a loophole for poachers, traders and carvers that they continue to exploit. There is an urgent need to close unregulated markets or bring them under greater control, both of which present a considerable political challenge. If they are to be closed, all those in neighbouring countries should be closed at the same time, otherwise the poached ivory will continue to be transported to where it can easily be sold
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Lemieux (in press) has identified a number of possible measures to prevent elephant poaching, which fall under these categories, including: the closure of logging roads; the use of pilot-less drones, gun shot detectors and concealed metal detectors in trails (for detecting guns); DNA coding of ivory; and the provision of technology to customs officials that would help them to identify ivory. In choosing among these measures, however, it would be necessary to have detailed information about
: who the poachers are and where they come from; whether they seek meat, ivory or both; how they find the elephants; how they evade detection; how they transport the tusks; who they sell them to and where, how much they are paid; how the ivory is sold on and whether it is exported; etc.
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In fact, the primary economic value of elephants, apart from ivory sales, comes from tourism, which can bring considerable sustainable income to an African country. Unfortunately, local people do not always directly benefit from this income, at least in terms that they can perceive and understand. There are many reasons for this. Government income from taxes on tourism might be used to fund a broad range of government programmes, rather than be used to support tourism by improving local roads and services. Some of this government income, in some countries, will also be lost to corruption. Profit made by tour operators will often end up overseas, in the countries where they are based. While tour operators might employ local people to service their game lodges, much of this work requires skills or sophistication that that local people do not possess. This means that those employed by the tour operators are often from outside the local area. For the local population, the perceivable benefits of tourism might therefore come mostly from the sale of carvings and artwork and from small sums handed out by the visitors. Indeed, it is possible to make the argument that eco-tourism brings the most direct benefits to a handful of wealthy people from the developed world and some indirect benefits to the world at large through the maintenance of bio-diversity. These benefits are subsidized by poor people in the destination countries whose livelihoods are constrained through controls on farming, grazing and the taking of bush meat, and whose crops are sometime destroyed by the animals tourists come to see. It is not simply enough, therefore, to promote tourism to African countries, desirable as this may be. Ways must also be found of bringing some tangible benefits of tourism to local people. This is a topic that goes well beyond the scope of the present discussion, which is concerned with situational measures to prevent poaching. But, in closing, we should mention ways in which situational measures could help to reduce crop destruction. Omondi et al. (2004) have discussed some ways to reduce this problem, including planting barriers of plants that elephants find noxious (such as Mauritius thorn), training farming communities in the use of thunder flashes to scare off marauding animals and creating local sanctuaries for elephants that are managed by local communities who might, as a result, benefit from tourism. Just as with poaching, however, more needs to be learned about crop raiding if it is to be brought under control. This means that if the support of local populations for conservation is to be enlisted, the field of wildlife crime should perhaps be as much concerned with ways to control the ‘ delinquent ’ behaviour of wild animals as with controlling those who prey upon them.